Comparative pharmacological and clinical review of selected herbal antihypertensive agents in hypertension management
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.69857/joapr.v14i3.2251Keywords:
Hypertension, Herbal antihypertensive agents, Garlic, Ginger, Rauwolfia serpentina, Terminalia arjunaAbstract
Background: Hypertension is a major global health concern and a leading risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Limitations associated with conventional antihypertensive therapy, including poor compliance, adverse effects, and inadequate blood pressure control, have increased interest in herbal agents possessing multitarget pharmacological actions and improved safety profiles. Methodology: A comparative literature review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect databases to identify relevant studies published between 2020 and 2026. Approximately 130 articles were screened, of which 80 relevant experimental studies, clinical trials, and meta-analyses were included for comparative evaluation of the antihypertensive effects, mechanisms, phytochemical profiles, and clinical relevance of selected herbal agents. Result and Discussion: Garlic (Allium sativum) demonstrated the strongest clinical evidence with consistent reductions in systolic and diastolic blood pressure through ACE inhibition, nitric oxide enhancement, and antioxidant effects. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) showed predominantly experimental evidence, with limited clinical evidence, of calcium channel blockade and vascular relaxation. Rauwolfia serpentina exhibited potent antihypertensive efficacy but was limited by neuropsychiatric adverse effects, whereas Terminalia arjuna provided moderate antihypertensive and cardioprotective benefits. Conclusion: Herbal antihypertensive agents exhibit mechanism-specific and stage-dependent therapeutic potential and may serve as supportive interventions in early-stage hypertension and cardiovascular comorbidities. However, the lack of standardization and limited long-term clinical evidence remain major limitations that require further investigation.
Downloads
References
Kazi DS, Elkind MSV, Deutsch A, Dowd WN, Heidenreich P, Khavjou O, Mark D, Mussolino ME, Ovbiagele B, Patel SS, Poudel R, Weittenhiller B, Powell-Wiley TM, Joynt Maddox KE. Forecasting the economic burden of cardiovascular disease and stroke in the United States through 2050: a presidential advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 150, e89–e101 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001258.
Dodulík J, Dodulíková L, Plášek J, Ramík Z, Vrtal J, Václavík J. Pharmacotherapy of arterial hypertension in patients with psoriasis. J Hypertens., 43, 568–576 (2025) https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000003982.
Smith SM, Winterstein AG, Gurka MJ, Walsh MG, Keshwani S, Libby AM, Hogan WR, Pepine CJ, Cooper-DeHoff RM. Initial antihypertensive regimens in newly treated patients: real world evidence from the OneFlorida+ clinical research network. J Am Heart Assoc., 12, e026652 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.122.026652.
Camafort M, Kreutz R, Cho MC. Diagnosis and management of resistant hypertension. Heart, 110, 1336–1342 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2022-321730.
Nasoufidou A, Bantidos MG, Fyntanidou B, Kofos C, Stachteas P, Arvanitaki A, Karakasis P, Sagris M, Kassimis G, Fragakis N, Karagiannidis E. Cardioprotective mechanisms of beta-blockers in myocardial ischemia and reperfusion: from molecular targets to clinical implications. Int J Mol Sci., 26, 9843 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26209843.
Shaito A, Thuan DTB, Phu HT, Nguyen THD, Hasan H, Halabi S, Abdelhady S, Nasrallah GK, Eid AH, Pintus G. Herbal medicine for cardiovascular diseases: efficacy, mechanisms, and safety. Front Pharmacol., 11, 422 (2020) https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.00422.
Sleiman C, Daou RM, Al Hazzouri A, Hamdan Z, Ghadieh HE, Harbieh B, Romani M. Garlic and hypertension: efficacy, mechanism of action, and clinical implications. Nutrients, 16, 2895 (2024) https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172895.
Herberth J, Soliman KM, Fülöp T, Basile JN. How we got where we are in blood pressure targets. Curr Hypertens Rep., 23, 33 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-021-01143-8.
Askari M, Mozaffari H, Mofrad MD, Jafari A, Surkan PJ, Amini MR, Azadbakht L. Effects of garlic supplementation on oxidative stress and antioxidative capacity biomarkers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Phytother Res., 35, 3032–3045 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.7021.
Cerdá B, Marhuenda J, Arcusa R, Villaño D, Ballester P, Zafrilla P. Ginger in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. In: Shiomi N, Savitskaya A, editors. Current Topics in Functional Food. IntechOpen (2022) https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.103970.
Maurya R, Boini T, Misro L, Radhakrishnan T, Singh R. Review on pharmacognostic, phytochemical and pharmacological characteristics of medicinal plants which can be used to design a novel Ayurvedic formulation to treat hypertension in multidimensional approaches. Curr Hypertens Rev., 19, 67–78 (2023) https://doi.org/10.2174/1573402119666230221084859.
Khaled A, Ahmed E, Mamdouh M, Saad H, Mohamed A, Sobhy M, Piatti D, Sabry M, Saad MA, Sabry OM, Caprioli G. Natural angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors: a safeguard against hypertension, respiratory distress syndrome, and chronic kidney diseases. Phytother Res., 37, 5464–5472 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.7987.
Ramesh P, Palaniappan A. Terminalia arjuna, a cardioprotective herbal medicine: relevancy in the modern era of pharmaceuticals and green nanomedicine—a review. Pharmaceuticals (Basel)., 16, 126 (2023) https://doi.org/10.3390/ph16010126.
Verma P, Sahu SK, Rawat R, Eyupoglu V, Patel P, Kaur P, Pandey P, Vyas M. In silico identification of antihypertensive phytoconstituents in Terminalia arjuna via molecular docking, MD simulation, and DFT analysis. Curr Pharm Des. (2026) https://doi.org/10.2174/0113816128411043251026105409.
Francis NS, Lim YM, Mat S, Loganathan A. Effectiveness of herbs taken concurrently with antihypertensive drugs in managing hypertension and lipid outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Complement Ther Med., 83, 103058 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2024.103058
Tomiyama H. Vascular function: a key player in hypertension. Hypertens Res., 46, 2145–2158 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-023-01354-3
Koller Á, Fazzini F, Lamina C, Rantner B, Kollerits B, Stadler M, Klein‐Weigel P, Fraedrich G, Kronenberg F. Mitochondrial DNA copy number is associated with all‐cause mortality and cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Intern Med., 287, 569–579 (2020) https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.13027
Takeda Y, Demura M, Yoneda T, Takeda Y. Epigenetic regulation of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system in hypertension. Int J Mol Sci., 25, 8099 (2024) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25158099.
Bayraktutan U. Angiotensin II and cardiovascular disease: balancing pathogenic and protective pathways. Curr Issues Mol Biol., 47, 501 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb47070501.
Quarti-Trevano F, Seravalle G, Grassi G. Clinical relevance of the sympathetic–vascular interactions in health and disease. Biomedicines, 9, 1007 (2021) https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9081007.
Kusayama T, Nagamori Y, Takeuchi K, Nakagawa Y, Takamura M. Renal autonomic dynamics in hypertension: how can we evaluate sympathetic activity for renal denervation? Hypertens Res., 47, 2685–2692 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-024-01816-2.
Correale M, Mercurio V, Bevere EML, Pezzuto B, Tricarico L, Attanasio U, Raucci A, Ferrara AL, Loffredo S, Puteo C, Iacoviello M, Margaglione M, Brunetti ND, Tocchetti CG, Agostoni P, Mussolino C, Vinci MC. Pathophysiology of pulmonary arterial hypertension: focus on vascular endothelium as a potential therapeutic target. Int J Mol Sci., 26, 9631 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26199631.
Gallo G, Savoia C. New insights into endothelial dysfunction in cardiometabolic diseases: potential mechanisms and clinical implications. Int J Mol Sci., 25, 2973 (2024) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25052973.
Backston K, Morgan J, Patel S, Koka R, Hu J, Raina R. Oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction: the pathogenesis of pediatric hypertension. Int J Mol Sci., 26, 5355 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26115355.
Młynarska E, Bojdo K, Frankenstein H, Krawiranda K, Kustosik N, Lisińska W, Rysz J, Franczyk B. Endothelial dysfunction as the common pathway linking obesity, hypertension and atherosclerosis. Int J Mol Sci., 26, 10096 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms262010096.
Silva-Cunha M, Ceron CS, Moreno H Júnior, Tanus-Santos JE. A narrative review on nitrate-rich diets as adjuncts to antihypertensive therapy: enhancing treatment efficacy via oxidative stress modulation. Biomedicines, 14, 39 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines14010039.
Yiblet Y. Medicinal plants traditionally utilized in Ethiopia for the treatment of hypertension: a systematic review. Health Sci Rep., 8, e71586 (2025) https://doi.org/10.1002/hsr2.71586.
Verma T, Aggarwal A, Dey P, Chauhan AK, Rashid S, Chen KT, Sharma R. Medicinal and therapeutic properties of garlic, garlic essential oil, and garlic-based snack food: an updated review. Front Nutr., 10, 1120377 (2023) https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1120377.
Tudu CK, Dutta T, Ghorai M, Biswas P, Samanta D, Oleksak P, Jha NK, Kumar M, Radha, Proćków J, Pérez de la Lastra JM, Dey A. Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of garlic (Allium sativum), a storehouse of diverse phytochemicals: a review of research from the last decade focusing on health and nutritional implications. Front Nutr., 9, 949554 (2022) https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.929554.
Serrano JCE, Castro-Boqué E, García-Carrasco A, Morán-Valero MI, González-Hedström D, Bermúdez-López M, Valdivielso JM, Espinel AE, Portero-Otín M. Antihypertensive effects of an optimized aged garlic extract in subjects with grade I hypertension and antihypertensive drug therapy: a randomized, triple-blind controlled trial. Nutrients, 15, 3691 (2023) https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15173691.
Maghraby YR, Labib RM, Sobeh M, Farag MA. Gingerols and shogaols: a multi-faceted review of their extraction, formulation, and analysis in drugs and biofluids to maximize their nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. Food Chem X, 20, 100947 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2023.100947.
Gupta J, Kumar D, Gupta R, Kumar S, Kumar M. Emerging trends in the pharmacological and therapeutic potential of ginger: from traditional medicine to nanotechnological innovations. Curr Pharm Des., 31, 2995–3016 (2025) https://doi.org/10.2174/0113816128372023250324050304.
Guo Y, Lu C, Zhang L, Wan H, Jiang E, Chen Y, Dong H. Nutrient-induced hyperosmosis evokes vasorelaxation via TRPV1 channel-mediated, endothelium-dependent, hyperpolarisation in healthy and colitis mice. Br J Pharmacol., 178, 689–708 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.15322.
Asif MA, Lisa SR, Qais N. Exploring the anti-hypertensive properties of medicinal plants and their bioactive metabolites: an extensive review. Am J Plant Sci., 12, 1705–1740 (2021) https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2021.1211119.
Alwindi M, Bizanti A. Vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) regional expression and roles in pathological conditions. Heliyon, 9, e21303 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22413.
Kumar S, Kumari D, Singh B. Genus Rauvolfia: a review of its ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, quality control/quality assurance, pharmacological activities and clinical evidence. J Ethnopharmacol., 295, 115327 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2022.115327.
Asghar A, Qasim M, Noor F, Ashfaq UA, Tahir Ul Qamar M, Masoud MS, Bhatti R, Almatroudi A, Alrumaihi F, Allemailem KS. Systematic elucidation of the multi-target pharmacological mechanism of Terminalia arjuna against congestive cardiac failure via network pharmacology and molecular modelling approaches. Nat Prod Res., 37, 3733–3740 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2023.2252565.
Bao P. Herbal therapeutics in cardiovascular disease: a review. Acta Pol Pharm., 82, (2025) https://doi.org/10.32383/appdr/208282.
Kumar V, Sharma N, Orfali R, Patel CN, Alnajjar R, Saini R, Sourirajan A, Khosla PK, Dev K, Perveen S. Multitarget potential of phytochemicals from traditional medicinal tree, Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arnot as potential medicaments for cardiovascular disease: an in-silico approach. Molecules, 28, 1046 (2023) https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28031046.
Feng Y, Zhou J, Zhong M, Ma D, Mao J, Liu F, Jiang C, Wu X, Jiang L. Plant-derived natural products ameliorating hypertension via signaling pathways: a review. Am J Chin Med., 53, 1309–1353 (2025) https://doi.org/10.1142/S0192415X2550051X.
Akhtar H, Al Sudani H, Hussein M, Farhan MUN, Elkholy K. Effects of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system inhibition on left ventricular hypertrophy, diastolic function, and functional status in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a systematic review. Cureus, 14, e26642 (2022) https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.26642.
Nádasy GL, Balla A, Dörnyei G, Hunyady L, Szekeres M. Direct vascular effects of angiotensin II (a systematic short review). Int J Mol Sci., 26, 113 (2024) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26010113.
Bashiri S, Taghipour Sheshdeh F, Foshati S, Askarpour M, Ahmadi A, Babajafari S. The effect of aged garlic supplementation on blood pressure and lipid profile: a dose–response GRADE-assessed systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Phytother Res., 39, 5669–5694 (2025) https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.70032.
Arandhara A, Saha D, Deka DJ, Deka M, Kumar Das B. Redox imbalance and cardiovascular pathogenesis: exploring the therapeutic potential of phytochemicals. Curr Bioact Compd., 20, 55–78 (2024) https://doi.org/10.2174/0115734072279525231210144617.
Zicha J, Vaněčková I. Altered balance between vasoconstrictor and vasodilator systems in experimental hypertension. Physiol Res., 73, 901–928 (2024) https://doi.org/10.33549/physiolres.935523.
Dalsasso RR, Valencia GA, Monteiro AR. Impact of drying and extraction processes on the recovery of gingerols and shogaols, the main bioactive compounds of ginger. Food Res Int., 154, 111043 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111043.
Deng B, Jiang XL, Xu YC, Chen S, Cai M, Deng SH, Ding WJ, Xu HL, Zhang SW, Tan ZB, Chen RX. 10-Gingerol, a natural AMPK agonist, suppresses neointimal hyperplasia and inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. Food Funct., 13, 3234–3246 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1039/D1FO03610F.
Tian L, Zhao S, Ding F, Zhang R. Allicin-induced vasorelaxation via endothelium-dependent and endothelium-independent mechanisms. Food Funct., 16, 4862–4873 (2025) https://doi.org/10.1039/D4FO06048B.
Quarti-Trevano F, Seravalle G, Grassi G. Clinical relevance of the sympathetic–vascular interactions in health and disease. Biomedicines, 9, 1007 (2021) https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9081007.
Maácz F, Bán EG, Brassai A, Sperlágh B, Vizi ES. The role of the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 in the inhibitory effect of tetrabenazine and valbenazine compared to reserpine on the vesicular release of monoamine transmitters. Front Cell Neurosci., 19, 1648613 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2025.1648613.
Siebenhofer A, Jeitler K, Horvath K, Berghold A, Siering U, Semlitsch T. Long-term effects of weight-reducing drugs in hypertensive patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev., 3, CD007654 (2013) https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007654.pub3.
Gallo G, Savoia C. New insights into endothelial dysfunction in cardiometabolic diseases: potential mechanisms and clinical implications. Int J Mol Sci., 25, 2973 (2024) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25052973.
Tang Y, Lei Y, Xu M, Tu Q, Mao X, Huang N, Jiang Q. Meta-analysis on the safety and efficacy of long-term garlic consumption as an adjunctive treatment for hypertension. Front Nutr., 12, 1656809 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2025.1656809.
Kim J, Kim GC, Kang H, Jeon Y. Effect of fermented garlic extract containing nitric oxide on radial artery pulse waves in hypertension patients: a feasibility observational study. Front Nutr., 12, 1433623 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2025.1433623.
Baik JS, Min JH, Ju SM, Ahn JH, Ko SH, Chon HS, Kim MS, Shin YI. Effects of fermented garlic extract containing nitric oxide metabolites on blood flow in healthy participants: a randomized controlled trial. Nutrients, 14, 5238 (2022) https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14245238.
Wang Y, Chen J, Wang W, Yi X, Xing S, Lei X, Chen H, Xie X. The core mechanism of hypertensive renal fibrosis: “RAAS–ROS–inflammation–fibrosis” axis. iScience (2026) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2026.115353.
Harahap U, Syahputra RA, Ahmed A, Nasution A, Wisely W, Sirait ML, Dalimunthe A, Zainalabidin S, Taslim NA, Nurkolis F, Kim B. Current insights and future perspectives of flavonoids: a promising antihypertensive approach. Phytother Res., 38, 3146–3168 (2024) https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.8199.
Ong C, Reyes A, Sacdalan F, Pangan W, Manganti B, Mascariñas J, Lorio A, Rueda M, Lumbang J, Salvatierra I. Clinical significance of potential drug interactions between herbal medicine and antihypertensive medications among hypertensive patients: a systematic review. SSRN Electronic Journal, (2025) https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5389188.
Asghar A, Qasim M, Noor F, Ashfaq UA, Tahir Ul Qamar M, Masoud MS, Bhatti R, Almatroudi A, Alrumaihi F, Allemailem KS. Systematic elucidation of the multi-target pharmacological mechanism of Terminalia arjuna against congestive cardiac failure via network pharmacology and molecular modelling approaches. Nat Prod Res., 37, 3733–3740 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2023.2252565.
Gupta J, Kumar D, Gupta R, Kumar S, Kumar M. Emerging trends in the pharmacological and therapeutic potential of ginger: from traditional medicine to nanotechnological innovations. Curr Pharm Des., 31, 2995–3016 (2025) https://doi.org/10.2174/0113816128372023250324050304.
Li C, Li J, Jiang F, Tzvetkov NT, Horbańczuk JO, Li Y, Atanasov AG, Wang D. Vasculoprotective effects of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and underlying molecular mechanisms. Food Funct., 12, 1897–1913 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1039/D0FO02210A.
Maghraby YR, Labib RM, Sobeh M, Farag MA. Gingerols and shogaols: a multi-faceted review of their extraction, formulation, and analysis in drugs and biofluids to maximize their nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. Food Chem X, 20, 100947 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2023.100947.
Rajaram V, Namasivayam A, Shanmugam R, Mahendra J, Sudhakar U, Munusamy T, Subbiah U. Terminalia arjuna: an overview of its medicinal properties. Bioinformation, 20, 2080–2087 (2024) https://doi.org/10.6026/9732063002002080.
Talasaz AH, McGonagle B, HajiQasemi M, Ghelichkhan ZA, Sadeghipour P, Rashedi S, Cuker A, Lech T, Goldhaber SZ, Jennings DL, Piazza G. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions between food or herbal products and oral anticoagulants: evidence review, practical recommendations, and knowledge gaps. Semin Thromb Hemost., (2024) https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0044-1790258.
Crichton M, Davidson AR, Innerarity C, Marx W, Lohning A, Isenring E, Marshall S. Orally consumed ginger and human health: an umbrella review. Am J Clin Nutr., 115, 1511–1527 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqac035.
Parveen A, Latafat T, Naseer M, Azmat J. Efficacy of Arjun (Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn.) in arterial stiffness: a case report. Tradit Integr Med., 10, 59–67 (2025) https://doi.org/10.18502/tim.v10i1.18224.
Kumar V, Sharma N, Saini R, Mall S, Zengin G, Sourirajan A, Khosla PK, Dev K, El-Shazly M. Therapeutic potential and industrial applications of Terminalia arjuna bark. J Ethnopharmacol., 310, 116352 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2023.116352.
Nyulas KI, Simon-Szabó Z, Pál S, Fodor MA, Dénes L, Cseh MJ, Barabás-Hajdu E, Csipor B, Szakács J, Preg Z, Germán-Salló M. Cardiovascular effects of herbal products and their interaction with antihypertensive drugs—comprehensive review. Int J Mol Sci., 25, 6388 (2024) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25126388.
Buzea CA, Dima L, Correll CU, Manu P. Drug–drug interactions involving antipsychotics and antihypertensives. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol., 18, 285–298 (2022) https://doi.org/10.1080/17425255.2022.2086121.
Azizah N, Halimah E, Puspitasari IM, Hasanah AN. Simultaneous use of herbal medicines and antihypertensive drugs among hypertensive patients in the community: a review. J Multidiscip Healthc., 14, 259–270 (2021) https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S289156.
Klein-Junior LC, de Souza MR, Viaene J, Bresolin TM, de Gasper AL, Henriques AT, Vander Heyden Y. Quality control of herbal medicines: from traditional techniques to state-of-the-art approaches. Planta Med., 87, 964–988 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1529-8339.
Visseren FLJ, Mach F, Smulders YM, Carballo D, Koskinas KC, Bäck M, Biffi A, Boavida JM, Capodanno D, et al. 2021 ESC Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Eur Heart J., 42, 3227–3337 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehab484.
Purwanto AD, Adji AS, Yanuarita AE, de Liyis BG, Suwito BE, Haksama S. An evidence-based review of herbal medications in cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Trop J Nat Prod Res., 9, (2025) https://doi.org/10.26538/tjnpr/v9i7.69.
Tandon PN. Indian Rauwolfia research led to the evolution of neuropsychopharmacology & the 2000 Nobel Prize (Part I). Indian J Med Res., 154, 163–168 (2021) https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_1672_21.
Mills KT, Stefanescu A, He J. The global epidemiology of hypertension. Nat Rev Nephrol., 16, 223–237 (2020) https://doi.org/10.1038/s41581-019-0244-2.
Rjabi S, Dabirian N, Amani-Beni R, Taghavi M, Askarpour M. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) supplementation and biomarkers of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. J Diet Suppl., 23, 118–149 (2026) https://doi.org/10.1080/19390211.2025.2583512.
Changaramkumarath G, Abucha JM, Wollel MM, Somannagari N, Kasagga A, Sapkota A, Malasevskaia IA. Pharmacological interactions between nutritional supplements and prescription medications in older adults: a comprehensive review. Cureus, 17, (2025) https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.92363.
Silva-Cunha M, Ceron CS, Moreno H Júnior, Tanus-Santos JE. A narrative review on nitrate-rich diets as adjuncts to antihypertensive therapy: enhancing treatment efficacy via oxidative stress modulation. Biomedicines, 14, 39 (2025) https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines14010039.
Khaled A, Ahmed E, Mamdouh M, Saad H, Mohamed A, Sobhy M, Piatti D, Sabry M, Saad MA, Sabry OM, Caprioli G. Natural angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors: a safeguard against hypertension, respiratory distress syndrome, and chronic kidney diseases. Phytother Res., 37, 5464–5472 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.7987.
Villaescusa L, Zaragozá C, Zaragozá F, Tamargo J. Herbal medicines for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases: benefits and risks—a narrative review. Int J Cardiol., 385, 44–52 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2023.04.045.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2026 Hemanga Mazumdar, Mrinmoy Basak
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
